Gender and Relationships revision

We will conclude our in-class revision of Gender and Relationships on Friday 4th May, and will be doing a Unit 3 mock paper in our double on Friday 11th May.

Here is the list of studies and theories for Gender which we made in our lesson last Friday - I will add a similar document for Relationships here on Monday.

Here is the list of past Unit 3 questions. You should by now have given me Q4 from January 2012, and I've set Q9 from January 2012 and Q5 from January 2012 for next Thursday. Some of you have other, very pressing, priorities, but remember that the more essays you write (I suggest without access to note, by hand, and in 30 minutes) the easier it will be in the real thing.

Here is the edited specification in case you don't have that - everything you need to know (apart from your AS Research Methods of course).

Here is a selection of sample essays written by a psychology teacher friend of mine, along with an AQA exemplar.

Wilcoxon's T test

The last of our four statistical tests, the Wilcoxon T test, is used for repeated measures and matched pairs designs. It is used when the hypothesis predicts a difference between two sets of data and when the data are ordinal or interval.

For Wilcoxon, the observed value must be less than or equal to the critical value for significance to be shown. This is the same procedure as the Mann-Whitney test. For X-squared and Spearman's rank, the observed value must be greater than or equal to the critical value for significance. I think that it is likely that you would be told this information as part of an exam question, but as this is always a dangerous thing to assume it is worth knowing the difference - especially as looking up critical values in a table has been a fairly common task in this question in recent years.

The step-by-step worksheet for Wilcoxon's test is here and the second worksheet is here. The 1-slide powerpoint explaining when to use Wilcoxon is here.

We also attempted an entire RM question from June 2010 which is here. The mark scheme is here.

I also handed out a summary sheet for the four tests now we have finished them all, and this is here.

Lots and lots of statistics

Today we practised two more statistical tests - Chi squared and Mann-Whitney.

The chi-squared test is used when the hypothesis predicts a difference or an association between two conditions, when the data is nominal (categoric) and when the categories used are independent of each other.

The two chi-squared worksheets are here and here. See me if you need the past paper question and mark scheme on this topic as it's old style copy and paste ie not electronic (likewise for the answer sheet to the worksheets).

The Mann-Whitney test is used for independent groups designs. The data needs to be ordinal or interval or ratio and the hypothesis needs to predict a difference between two sets of data.

The step-by-step worksheet for Mann-Whitney is here and the second example sheet is here.

I also briefly talked about types of data and this handout should clarify matters.

The Specification

Here is an edited version of the whole specification - for you to 'traffic-light' by our next lesson:AQA a Psychology Spec Cheney 2012

Exceptional Experiences

The final section of the anomalistic specification is:

"Psychological research into and explanations for psychic healing, near death and out of body experiences, and psychic mediumship."

'Explanations for...' can of course include the possibility that these things are real, but it seems more likely (to most psychologists) that they are instead powerfully real 'experiences' which have rational, scientific explanations.

There aren't many different questions that can be asked on these, but you could be required to focus either on 'explanations for' or 'research into' these experiences. You therefore need one or two explanations in reasonable depth, and at least one, preferably two studies for each that you can describe and evaluate. Of course, if the question is on explanations, studies can form part of the evaluation.
Exceptional Experiences 2

Spearman's rho

Today we encountered our first statistical test - Spearman's rank (or rho) test for correlation.

The idiot's guide step by step worksheet is here and the second worksheet is here. The powerpoint is here.

Make sure that you complete the exam question I gave you for homework. If you carried out a Spearman's rank test in class (and you all did with the chocolate experiment) then this is above and beyond what you will need to do in the exam. The full mark scheme for the question that I gave you is here.

Personality Factors Underlying Anomalous Experience

Today we discussed the various personality factors underlying anomalous experience, then attempted to write paragraphs evaluating any three different factors. This proved taxing, and this therefore becomes homework to be handed in next Thursday - one side of A4 if you're handwriting.

Personality Factors Underlying Anomalous Experience

Probability & significance

Today we started the data analysis section of the research methods spec and spent some time discussing what we mean by probability and significance.

Using the theoretical example of whether men or women are better at map reading, and testing 50 men and 50 women, what sort of results would you need to conclude that there was a difference in map reading ability?

Average male score: 0.60 Average female score: 0.61 Null hypothesis correct

Average male score: 0.1 Average female score: 0.92 Null hypothesis rejected

Average male score 0.62 Average female score: 0.68 Is this significant???

The only way to find out is to perform a statistical test on the data. This will tell us the probability of our results occurring if the null hypothesis is true (ie if there is no difference in map reading ability). If this probability is less than 0.05 then we say that our results are significant, and that we can reject the null hypothesis.

Today's powerpoint is here. We also revised ethics and descriptive statistics from AS so do make sure you go over the relevant section in the textbook. Ethics ppt here, ethics mix and match sheet here, example information sheet and consent form here, and graphs matching activity here.

We will be going over this stuff a few times so don't worry if it bamboozles you to begin with.

Superstition and Magical Thinking

Superstitions can be explained with behavioural ideas / learning theory and by the evolutionary approach - the link between the two (sometimes seen as opposites, as they sit on opposite sides of the nature / nurture debate) is explained by Richard Dawkins in this video about superstistious pigeons:

Superstitions are often associated with situations in which people feel out of control, and where this is stressful. Superstitious behaviour may serve a function of helping people to deal with this stress. This link describes superstitious behaviour of soldiers in Afghanistan.

Make sure you can explain this statement:

Assuming that a ‘coincidence’ (two events occurring close together in time) means that the two are causally related may have had adaptive value for our ancestors. At least, the consequences of assuming false causal links would have usually been much better than missing real causal links.

'Magical thinking' is new to the specification this year so not in most textbooks. Make sure you can define it, give examples and link to the explanations for superstitious behaviours. A key idea is that superstitions and paranormal beliefs arise from modes of thinking which are generally adaptive - that is they aid survival, at least in a world where actually understanding connections between events was usually impossible.

Here is a link to more information on Cargo Cults - a good example of magical thinking, and this site has the video clip we watched in our lesson.

Magical Thinking

Reliability & Validity

Are these rulers internally reliable? Externally reliable?

Here are the key RM terms that we've covered recently:

Reliability

Inter-observer reliability

Internal reliability

External reliability

Split-half method

Test-retest method

Internal validity

Investigator effects

Demand characteristics

Participant reactivity

Extraneous variables

Single-blind, double-blind techniques

Face validity

Concurrent validity

Predictive validity

Ecological validity

Population validity

Mundane realism

My powerpoints on reliability and validity are here and here. We'll start the stats next week, which is certainly a bit more interesting but is a bit trickier.

We have moved on to 'Explanations for Anomalistic Experience' - the middle section of the specification. Here is what you need to know:

• The role of coincidence and probability judgements in anomalous experience 
• Explanations for superstitious behaviour and magical thinking 
• Personality factors underlying anomalous experience

There are a couple of changes from last year's specification - mainly things being taken out, but 'magical thinking' is new and 'probability judgements' have become more important. Bear in mind that textbooks which were published more than a year ago are therefore a bit out of date.

Here are the updated 'dog book' pages for the changed parts of the Anomalistic topic. We were looking at the 'Coincidence and probability judgements' double-page-spread yesterday and you need to answer the questions at the end of this for next Thursday (at the bottom of page 3 of the pdf).

Coincidence and Probability Judgement 2012

Some research methods resources

We've started the Psychological Research and Scientific Method of the Unit 4 paper. It's important that you revise the AS research methods course content to begin with, before we get onto the stats. Here's a list of resources used recently that may help:

Experimental methods big table to fill in

Experimental design ppt using Peterson & Peterson (1959) as an example

Mini sheet on experimental design

Sampling techniques ppt

Article from The Psychologist on the use of student participants in Psychological research

AS and A2 Psychology specification

Enjoy.....

Controversies in Ganzfeld research

Here is the presentation on Ganzfeld research, focusing on the issues which perhaps / probably explain the positive results of some studies and meta-analyses: investigator (sheep/goat) effects and the 'file drawer' effect:
02 Ganzfeld and PK Research and Controversies

ESP research - Ganzfeld studies

We introduced the Ganzfeld technique for studying ESP (extra-sensory perception - perceiving another person's thoughts without the use any scientifically understood sense, or 'remote viewing') at the end of term, trying out some free-association Ganzfeld.

Here is a not-very-serious video illustrating what the procedure involves.

Read about Ganzfeld-induced hallucinations here.

The Wikipedia article on Ganzfeld is very helpful.

You need notes on two studies by our next lesson on Thursday 23rd February - Sargent and Soal-Goldney (the former is in the Ganzfeld/PK section of your textbook, the latter is in the section before on Scientific Fraud.

A homework essay is due by the end of next week - for submission through Edmodo if you can manage that.

"To what extent has the issue of scientific fraud damaged the credibility of research into ESP and psychokinesis?" 9 + 16 marks.

Anomalistic Psychology - Intro and Psychokinesis research

Over the last four lessons we have introduced our Anomalistic Psychology topic and looked at research into PK - psychokinesis or 'psychic action' - moving or manipulating objects with will / mind power alone.

Here is the presentation from the introductory lesson.

You should have definitions of the following:

• Anomalous experience
• Paranormal
• Parapsychology
• Pseudoscience
• Anomalistic psychology
• ESP
• Ganzfeld
• Telekinesis
• Psychic
• Psychic mediumship
• Psychic healing
• Near death / out of body experience

The first section of the specification is as follows:

The study of anomalous experience

• Pseudoscience and the scientific status of parapsychology
• Methodological issues related to the study of paranormal cognition (ESP, including Ganzfeld) and paranormal action (psychokinesis)

We began this by looking at what makes science 'science' - in particular replicability, falsifiability, objectivity, experimental method and a consistent paradigm - you should be able to explain these with examples. Parapsychology is a pseudoscience (false science) because it fails on one or more of these, but then so does a lot of the rest of psychology! This makes these ideas helpful for evaluating other topics.

Here is a long presentation on pseudoscience, and here is a short one on science.

Macro PK research by parapsychologists has involved attempts to prove that spoon-bending and other similar 'powers' are real. The key issue here is one of falsifiability - if researchers are looking for evidence to confirm that an effect is real, rather than trying to falsify the claim, then it is easy for them to be taken in.

Micro PK involves influencing RNGs (random number generators), 'electronic coin flippers' and other electronic devices that produce random data. Research in this is more respectable, with some research apparently showing very significant results, albeit for very small effects.

Here is a presentation on PK.

You need notes on Walter Levy Jr. research with aparently psychokinetic rats (this is a good example of scientific fraud - deliberate cheating by a researcher) as well as the PK section of your textbook. Learn these for a test next Thursday (9th February).

Psychological therapies for schizophrenia

Today we watched a video on Freud and explored why he believed psychoanalysis wouldn't work for schizophrenia.
In psychoanalysis, the therapiest creates an alliance with the patient in order to discuss the patient's problems. The client transfers emotions originally associated with one person (usually a parent) on to the therapist - this is transference. Freud thought that this wasn't possible for a schizophrenic.
Later therapists have attempted to use psychoanalysis for schizophrenia with not very convincing results, and it certainly is no more effective than drugs.
The powerpoint is here.

Biological treatments for schizophrenia

Recently we covered the biological therapies for schizophrenia - drugs & ECT. The powerpoint is here. Prior to the discovery of antipsychotics in the 1950s there was no effective treatment for schizophrenia. Insulin treatment and ECT were used, but largely as methods of control rather than treatment. ECT is no longer used for schizophrenia because of the risks associated with it (but is occasionally for severe depression), but it is interesting to study for historical interest and because of the inherent ethical questions it raises. Don't worry about the biochemistry of how the antipsychotics work - their overall effect is to lower dopamine levels. Tardive dyskinesia is a worrying side effect, which can be irreversible.

Psychological explanations of schizophrenia

The powerpoint is here and the summary table to fill in is here.

None of the psychological theories are really satisfactory, but this gives you more opportunity for AO2 marks when evaluating them - plus they will be useful to use as evaluation for the biological explanations in an essay.

The next essay is due in two weeks time -

'Discuss two or more biological explanations of schizophrenia' (24 marks). I have written a plan and this is here.

Relationships in Different Cultures

We've spent the last two lessons looking at research into relationships in different cultures, which really means collectivist cultures.

You should be able to describe the differences between relationships in individualist and collectivist cultures (the 'obligatory, permanent and collectivist (between families) idea is useful here) - including a brief outline of how marriages are arranged, and outline and evaluate research into relationships in collectivist cultures. This mainly involves comparisons of levels of satisfaction between couples in arranged marriages and 'love marriages'. The results are inconclusive - some studies find that those in arranged marriages are happier in the long term, but not all - there are many issues with the reliability and validity with this research, the big one being culture bias (caused by the use of Western research tools e.g. questionnaires).

For homework you need to make notes on the studies comparing satisfaction in arranged and 'love' marriages in India and China.

Here is the presentation.

We will spend some time next lesson answering this question:
"Discuss research into relationships in different cultures." 4 marks AO1 + 8 marks AO2
Notes will be allowed but not textbooks!

Schizophrenia continued...

Here is a useful summary of the arguments for and against the dopamine hypothesis.

Remember that any theory of schizophrenia is going to be unsatisfactory simply because of the nature of the disorder - no two schizophrenics are exactly alike, and each schizophrenic will show variation throughout the course of their life. Almost all schizophrenics will be on antipsychotic drugs so it is hard to separate out their effects from those of the underlying disorder (and the inevitable interaction of the two).

Next lesson we will look at the psychological explanations of schizophrenia.

The influence of childhood on adult relationships

The central theory we have looked at relating to the link between infant relationships and adult romantic relationships is Bowlby's 'continuity hypothesis' - that is, that the continuity is a result of the 'internal working model' acquired through the attachment relationships with the child's primary care giver, during the critical period.

You should know the evidence from Hazan and Shaver's 'Love Quiz' that the link exists, and be able to evaluate the use of this (and other questionnaires) and the Adult Attachment Interview. There are plenty of studies, looking at the related questions of how early childhood relationships may affect adolescent relationships, which in turn may affect adult ones... This sheet summaries a range of studies with clues as to how you might use them.

This topic is a good opportunity to use the Free Will vs Determinism and Nature / Nurture debates, as well as lots of research methodology issues to do with sample bias and participant effects (especially social desirability bias). The big problem with the research is that it doesn't really help to answer the question 'why is there continuity in relationship / attachment style?' - is Bowlby right, or could it be Temperament (nature) or Social Learning (nurture of a different kind)?

First presentation, introducing continuity.
Second presentation - more on research into continuity.

In our lesson on Friday we spent 15 minutes answering this question:
"To what extent does research support the claim that relationships in adolescence affect those in adulthood?"
4 marks AO1 + 8 marks AO2

Essay question for Edmodo submission end of next week (Friday 20th):

“Mothers need to be aware that the way they treat their young children will determine their chances of finding love in later life”
Discuss the validity of this statement with reference to psychological research.
25 marks – 9+16

Is there a biological basis to schizophrenia?

We have now looked at three different biological explanations of schizophrenia - genetics, biochemistry and neuroanatomy. Each has different strengths and weaknesses as you might expect. It's always good to add in some issues, debates or approaches if possible- and here you can add in some criticisms of the biological approach in general - accusations of being reductionist, mechanistic and deterministic.

The Biological explanations powerpoint is here.

On being sane in insane places (Rosenhan, 1973)

A fascinating and shocking chapter of psychiatric history.8 pseudopatients with no history of psychiatric problems managed to get admitted to different US psychiatric hospitals, after reporting brief auditory hallucinations. The study was a very influential criticism of psychiatric diagnosis at the time.

Do have a read of the original Rosenhan article - it is long but give it a go.

Also worth watching (or reading), in a similar vein, is 'One flew over the Cuckoo's nest'.

Today's powerpoint is here - you need to distinguish between problems of reliability and validity of diagnosis.

Wednesday 4th Jan

Use this sheet.